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Symbol Symbol Name Meaning/definition Example
a^b 2^3=8
√a caret exponent √9 = ±3
3√a 3√8 = 2
4√a square root √a · √a = a 4√16 = ±2
n√a for n = 3, n√8 = 2
% cube root 3√a · 3√a · 3√a = a 10% × 30 = 3
ppm 10ppm × 30 = 0.0003
ppb fourth root 4√a · 4√a · 4√a · 4√a = a 10ppb × 30 = 3×10-7

n-th root (radical)

percent 1% = 1/100

parts-per-million 1ppm = 1/1,000,000

parts-per-billion 1ppb = 1/1,000,000,000

Issue 2 – September 2016 1-8 Total Training Support Ltd
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